** after 2022 34_Lecture_Presentation.pptx

Figure 34.15b

Figure 34.15c

** after 2022 34_Lecture_Presentation.pptx

Figure 34.15c

Video: Manta Ray

Slide 93

Sharks have a streamlined body and are swift swimmersDorsal fins function as stabilizers, and paired pectoral and pelvic fins are used for maneuveringContinual swimming keeps sharks from sinking and maintains continuous flow of water over gills

The largest sharks are suspension feeders, but most are carnivoresSharks have a short digestive tract with a spiral valve that increases surface area and slows the passage of foodAcute senses including sight, smell, and the ability to detect electrical fi

Shark eggs are fertilized internally, but embryos can develop in different waysOviparous: Eggs hatch outside the mother’s bodyOvoviviparous: Eggs are retained within the oviduct; young are born after hatching within the uterusViviparous胎生: The embryo deve

The reproductive tract, excretory system, and digestive tract empty into the cloaca泄殖腔, a common chamber with an opening to the outside

Most rays are bottom-dwellers that feed on molluscs and crustaceansThey are flattened and have enlarged pectoral fins that function like water wingsMany have whiplike tails; in some species, the tail bears venomous barbs for defense

Chondrichthyans are severely threatened by overfishingShark populations in the Pacific have plummeted by up to 95%

Ray-Finned Fishes and Lobe-Fins

Figure 34.UN05

Most fishes breathe by drawing water over gills protected by an operculum鰓蓋Fishes control their buoyancy with an air sac known as a swim bladder鰾The skin secretes mucus and is covered by flattened, bony scales in most fishesFishes have a lateral line syst

** after 2022 34_Lecture_Presentation.pptx

Ray-Finned Fishes and Lobe-Fins

Figure 34.UN05

Most fishes breathe by drawing water over gills protected by an operculum鰓蓋Fishes control their buoyancy with an air sac known as a swim bladder鰾The skin secretes mucus and is covered by flattened, bony scales in most fishesFishes have a lateral line syst

Slide 103

Most fishes breathe by drawing water over gills protected by an operculum鰓蓋Fishes control their buoyancy with an air sac known as a swim bladder鰾The skin secretes mucus and is covered by flattened, bony scales in most fishesFishes have a lateral line syst

Slide 103

Slide 104

Slide 105

Slide 104

Slide 105

Slide 106

How gas is pumped into the swim bladder

Figure 34.16

Ray-Finned Fishes

Figure 34.17

Figure 34.17a

Figure 34.17b

Figure 34.17c

Figure 34.17d

Video: Clownfish and Anemone

Video: Coral Reef

Video: Seahorse Camouflage

Humans have harvested ray-finned fishes for thousands of years, but industrial-scale fishing has driven many fisheries to collapseRay-finned fishes are also negatively impacted by dams that change water flow patterns, affecting prey capture, migration, an

Lobe-Fins

Figure 34.18

Figure 34.18a

Three lineages survive and include coelacanths (Actinistia), lungfishes (Dipnoi), and tetrapodsCoelacanths were thought to have become extinct 75 million years ago, but a living coelacanth was caught off the coast of South Africa in 1938

Figure 34.19

The living lungfishes are all found in the Southern HemisphereThough gills are the main organs for gas exchange, they can also surface to gulp air into their lungsThe third surviving lineage of lobe-fins is tetrapods, a group that adapted to life on land

Concept 34.4: Tetrapods are gnathostomes that have limbs

Derived Characters of Tetrapods

The Origin of Tetrapods

Traits shared with tetrapods but not fish includeRibs to breathe air and support its bodyA neck and shoulders, allowing movement of the headFront fins with the bone pattern of a tetrapod limbPelvis and rear fin that are larger and more robust than those f

The Origin of Tetrapods

Traits shared with tetrapods but not fish includeRibs to breathe air and support its bodyA neck and shoulders, allowing movement of the headFront fins with the bone pattern of a tetrapod limbPelvis and rear fin that are larger and more robust than those f

Figure 34.20

Traits shared with tetrapods but not fish includeRibs to breathe air and support its bodyA neck and shoulders, allowing movement of the headFront fins with the bone pattern of a tetrapod limbPelvis and rear fin that are larger and more robust than those f

Figure 34.20

Figure 34.20a

Figure 34.20b

Figure 34.20c

Figure 34.20d

Tiktaalik could most likely prop itself on its fins and walk in water, but it is unlikely that it walked on landFossils like Tiktaalik have allowed paleontologists to reconstruct the evolution of the tetrapod limbThe first tetrapods appeared 365 million y

Figure 34.21

Figure 34.21a

Figure 34.21b

Amphibians

Figure 34.UN06

Salamanders

Figure 34.22

Figure 34.22a

Frogs

Figure 34.22b

Caecilians真蚓科

Figure 34.22c

Lifestyle and Ecology of Amphibians

Figure 34.23

Figure 34.23a

Figure 34.23b

Figure 34.23c

Some amphibians are strictly aquatic or strictly terrestrial, but most are found in damp habitatsMost amphibians have moist skin that complements the lungs in gas exchange

Fertilization is external in most species, and the eggs require a moist environmentIn some species, males or females care for the eggs on their back, in their mouth, or in their stomach

Some amphibians are strictly aquatic or strictly terrestrial, but most are found in damp habitatsMost amphibians have moist skin that complements the lungs in gas exchange

Fertilization is external in most species, and the eggs require a moist environmentIn some species, males or females care for the eggs on their back, in their mouth, or in their stomach

Figure 34.24

Amphibian populations have been declining in recent decadesThe causes include a disease-causing chytrid fungus, habitat loss, climate change, and pollutionAt least 9 amphibian species have become extinct in the past 40 years; more than 100 others have not

Concept 34.5: Amniotes are tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg

Figure 34.25

Figure 34.25a

Figure 34.25b

Derived Characters of Amniotes

Figure 34.26

The amniotic egg was a key adaptation to life on land The amniotic eggs of most reptiles and some mammals have a shellAmniotes have other terrestrial adaptations, such as relatively impermeable skin and the ability to use the rib cage to ventilate the lun

Early Amniotes

Figure 34.27

Reptiles

Figure 34.UN08

Figure 34.28

Most reptiles are ectothermic, absorbing external heat as the main source of body heatEctotherms regulate their body temperature through behavioral adaptationsBirds are endothermic, capable of maintaining body temperature through metabolism

The Origin and Evolutionary Radiation of Reptiles

The diapsids are composed of two main lineages: the lepidosaurs and the archosaursThe lepidosaurs include tuataras, lizards, snakes, and extinct mososaursThe archosaur lineage produced the turtles, crocodilians, pterosaurs, and dinosaurs

Pterosaurs were the first tetrapods to exhibit flapping flightPterosaurs went extinct by 66 million years ago The dinosaurs diversified into a vast range of shapes and sizesThey included herbivores with diverse adaptations for defense and bipedal carnivor

Fossil discoveries and research have led to the conclusion that many dinosaurs were agile and fast movingPaleontologists have also discovered signs of parental care among dinosaursSome anatomical evidence supports the hypothesis that at least some dinosau

Dinosaurs, with the exception of birds, became extinct by the end of the Cretaceous (66 million years ago)Their extinction may have been partly caused by an asteroid

Lepidosaurs

Figure 34.29

Figure 34.29a

The other major living lineage of lepidosaurs consists of the squamates, the lizards and snakesSquamates range in size from the tiny Jaragua lizard at 16 mm long to the Komodo dragon at 3 m long

Figure 34.29b

Video: Galápagos Marine Iguana

Snakes are legless lepidosaurs that evolved from lizards with legsSnakes are carnivorous and have adaptations to aid in capture and consumption of prey, includingChemical sensorsHeat-detecting organsVenom Loosely articulated jawbones and elastic skin

Video: Galápagos Marine Iguana

Figure 34.29b

Video: Galápagos Marine Iguana

Snakes are legless lepidosaurs that evolved from lizards with legsSnakes are carnivorous and have adaptations to aid in capture and consumption of prey, includingChemical sensorsHeat-detecting organsVenom Loosely articulated jawbones and elastic skin

Figure 34.29c

Video: Snake Ritual Wrestling

Turtles

Figure 34.29d

Video: Galápagos Tortoise

Some turtles have adapted to deserts and others live entirely in ponds and riversThe largest turtles live in the seaMany species of sea turtles are endangered by accidental capture in fishing nets or development of beaches where they lay eggs

Crocodilians

Figure 34.29e

Birds

Derived Characters of BirdsMany characters of birds are adaptations that facilitate flightThe major adaptation is wings with keratin feathersWeight-saving adaptations that improve the efficiency of flight include lack of a urinary bladder, females with on

Figure 34.30

Figure 34.30a

Figure 34.30b

Figure 34.30c

Video: Flapping Geese

Video: Soaring Hawk

Video: Swans Taking Flight

Flight enhances hunting and scavenging, escape from terrestrial predators, and migrationFlight requires a great expenditure of energy, acute vision, and fine muscle control

Birds generally display complex behaviors including elaborate courtship ritualsFertilization is internalEggs and the developing embryos inside must be kept warm through brooding by one or both parents

The Origin of BirdsBirds probably descended from small theropods, a group of carnivorous dinosaursFeathers evolved long before powered flightEarly feathers might have evolved for insulation, camouflage, or courtship display

By 160 million years ago, feathered theropods had evolved into birdsArchaeopteryx remains the oldest bird knownIt had feathered wings, but retained ancestral characters such as teeth, claws, and a long tail

Figure 34.31

Living BirdsLiving birds belong to the clade NeornithesSeveral groups of birds include one or more flightless speciesThe ratites are all flightless birdsPenguins use powerful pectoral muscles to “fly” in waterCertain species of rails, ducks, and pigeons a

Figure 34.32

Figure 34.33

The demands of flight have rendered the general body form of many flying birds similar to one anotherBird species can be distinguished by characters including profile, color, flying style, behavior, beak shape, and foot structure

Figure 34.34

Figure 34.35

Figure 34.35a

Figure 34.35b

Figure 34.36

Concept 34.6: Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk

Figure 34.UN09

Derived Characters of Mammals

Figure 34.37

Early Evolution of Mammals

Figure 34.38

Synapsids evolved into large herbivores and carnivores during the Permian period (299–252 million years ago)Mammal-like synapsids emerged by the end of the Triassic (252–201 million years ago)The first true mammals arose during the Jurassic (201–145 milli

By the early Cretaceous (140 million years ago), the three living lineages of mammals emerged: monotremes, marsupials, and eutheriansMammals underwent adaptive radiation after the extinction of the large dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and marine reptiles during t

Monotremes

Figure 34.39

Figure 34.39a

Figure 34.39b

Marsupials

Figure 34.40

Figure 34.40a

Figure 34.40

Figure 34.40a

Figure 34.40b

In some species, the marsupium opens to the front of the mother’s body; in other species it opens to the rear of the mother’s bodyIn Australia, convergent evolution has resulted in a diversity of marsupials that resemble the eutherians in other parts of t

Figure 34.41

Figure 34.41a

Figure 34.41b

Eutherians (Placental Mammals)

Molecular and morphological data give conflicting dates on the diversification of eutheriansMolecular data suggest it occurred about 100 million years agoMorphological data indicate 60 million years ago

Figure 34.42a

Figure 34.42aa

Figure 34.42ab

Figure 34.42b

Figure 34.42ba

Figure 34.42bb

Figure 34.42bc

Figure 34.42bd

Figure 34.42be

Video: Bat Licking Nectar

Video: Bat Pollinating Agave Plant

Video: Galápagos Sea Lion

Video: Wolves Agonistic Behavior

Video: Shark Eating a Seal

Primates

Derived Characters of PrimatesMost primates have hands and feet adapted for grasping, and flat nails instead of claws

Primates

Derived Characters of PrimatesMost primates have hands and feet adapted for grasping, and flat nails instead of claws

Other derived characters of primates A large brain and short jawsForward-looking eyes close together on the face, providing depth perceptionA fully opposable thumb (in monkeys and apes)

** after 2022 34_Lecture_Presentation.pptx

Primates 靈長類動物

Derived Characters of PrimatesMost primates have hands and feet adapted for grasping 抓握, and flat nails instead of claws

Primates 靈長類動物

Video: Shark Eating a Seal

Video: Wolves Agonistic Behavior

Video: Shark Eating a Seal

Primates 靈長類動物

Derived Characters of PrimatesMost primates have hands and feet adapted for grasping 抓握, and flat nails instead of claws

Other derived characters of primates A large brain and short jawsForward-looking eyes close together on the face, providing depth perceptionA fully opposable thumb 對生拇指 (in monkeys and apes)

Living PrimatesThere are three main groups of living primatesLemurs 狐猴, lorises 懶猴, and bush babies 嬰猴Tarsiers 眼鏡猴Anthropoids 類人猿(monkeys and apes)

Figure 34.43

The oldest known tarsier fossils date to about 55 million years old and indicate that tarsiers are more closely related to anthropoids 類人猿 than to lemurs狐猴

Figure 34.44

The first monkeys evolved in the Old World (Africa and Asia)In the New World (South America), monkeys first appeared roughly 25 million years agoNew World and Old World monkeys underwent separate adaptive radiations during their many millions of years of

Figure 34.45

The first monkeys evolved in the Old World (Africa and Asia)In the New World (South America), monkeys first appeared roughly 25 million years agoNew World and Old World monkeys underwent separate adaptive radiations during their many millions of years of

Figure 34.45

Figure 34.45a

Figure 34.45b

The other group of anthropoids consists of primates informally called apesThis group includes gibbons長臂猿, orangutans 紅毛猩猩, gorillas大猩猩, chimpanzees黑猩猩, bonobos倭黑猩猩, and humansApes diverged from Old World monkeys about 25–30 million years ago

Figure 34.46

Figure 34.46a

Figure 34.46b

Figure 34.46c

Figure 34.46d

Figure 34.46e

Video: Gibbons Brachiating

Video: Chimp Agonistic Behavior

Video: Chimp Cracking Nut

Concept 34.7: Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion

Derived Characters of Humans

Concept 34.7: Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion

Derived Characters of Humans

The human and chimpanzee genomes are 99% identicalHumans and chimpanzees differ in the expression of 19 regulatory genesChanges in regulatory genes can have large effects

The Earliest Hominins

Figure 34.47

The Earliest Hominins

Figure 34.47

Figure 34.47a

Figure 34.47b

The oldest fossil evidence of hominins dates back to 6.5 million years agoEarly hominins show evidence of small brains and increasing bipedalismThey were also small in stature; Ardipithecus ramidus 地猿(4.4 million years old) was only about 1.2 m tall

Figure 34.48

Misconception: Early hominins were chimpanzees or evolved from chimpanzeesCorrection: Hominins and chimpanzees shared a common ancestorMisconception: Human evolution is like a ladder leading directly to Homo sapiensCorrection: Hominin evolution included m

Australopiths 南方古猿

Figure 34.49

Figure 34.49a

Figure 34.49

Australopiths 南方古猿

Misconception: Early hominins were chimpanzees or evolved from chimpanzeesCorrection: Hominins and chimpanzees shared a common ancestorMisconception: Human evolution is like a ladder leading directly to Homo sapiensCorrection: Hominin evolution included m

Australopiths 南方古猿

Figure 34.49

Figure 34.49a

Figure 34.49b

“Robust” australopiths had sturdy skulls and powerful jaws“Gracile” australopiths were more slender and had lighter jaws

Bipedalism 兩足步行

Tool Use

Early Homo

Homo ergaster 匠人was the first fully bipedal, large-brained hominidThe species existed between 1.9 and 1.5 million years agoHomo ergaster shows a significant decrease in sexual dimorphism (a size difference between sexes) compared with its ancestors

Early Homo

Homo ergaster 匠人was the first fully bipedal, large-brained hominidThe species existed between 1.9 and 1.5 million years agoHomo ergaster shows a significant decrease in sexual dimorphism (a size difference between sexes) compared with its ancestors

Homo ergaster fossils were previously assigned to Homo erectus直立人; most paleoanthropologists now recognize these as separate species

Figure 34.50

Homo erectus originated in Africa and was the first hominin to migrate out of AfricaThe oldest fossils of hominins outside Africa date back to 1.8 million years ago